Horse
The
horse (
Equus ferus caballus)
[2][3] is one of two
extant subspecies of
Equus ferus. It is an
odd-toed ungulate mammal belonging to the taxonomic family
Equidae. The horse has
evolved over the past 45 to 55 million years from a
small multi-toed creature into the large, single-toed animal of today. Humans began to
domesticate horses around 4000 BC, and their
domestication is believed to have been widespread by 3000 BC. Horses in the subspecies
caballus are domesticated, although some domesticated populations live in the wild as
feral horses. These feral populations are not true
wild horses, as this term is used to describe horses that have never been domesticated, such as the endangered
Przewalski's horse, a separate subspecies, and the only remaining true
wild horse. There is an extensive, specialized vocabulary used to describe equine-related concepts, covering everything from
anatomy to life stages, size,
colors,
markings,
breeds,
locomotion, and behavior.
Horses' anatomy enables them to make use of speed to escape predators and they have a well-developed
sense of balance and a strong
fight-or-flight response. Related to this need to flee from predators in the wild is an unusual trait: horses are able to sleep both standing up and lying down. Female horses, called
mares, carry their young for approximately 11 months, and a young horse, called a
foal, can stand and run shortly following birth. Most domesticated horses begin training under
saddle or in
harness between the ages of two and four. They reach full adult development by age five, and have an average lifespan of between 25 and 30 years.
Horse breeds are loosely divided into three categories based on general temperament: spirited "hot bloods" with speed and endurance; "cold bloods", such as
draft horses and some
ponies, suitable for slow, heavy work; and "
warmbloods", developed from crosses between hot bloods and cold bloods, often focusing on creating breeds for specific riding purposes, particularly in Europe. There are more than 300 breeds of horse in the world today, developed for many different uses.
Horses and humans interact in a wide variety of sport competitions and non-competitive recreational pursuits, as well as in working activities such as
police work,
agriculture, entertainment, and
therapy. Horses were historically used in warfare, from which a wide variety of
riding and
driving techniques developed, using many different styles of
equipment and methods of control. Many products are derived from horses, including meat, milk, hide, hair, bone, and pharmaceuticals extracted from the urine of pregnant mares. Humans provide domesticated horses with food, water and shelter, as well as attention from specialists such as
veterinarians and
farriers
Lifespan and life stages
Depending on breed,
management and environment, the modern domestic horse has a life expectancy of 25 to 30 years.
[6] Uncommonly, a few animals live into their 40s and, occasionally, beyond.
[7] The oldest verifiable record was "
Old Billy", a 19th-century horse that lived to the age of 62.
[6] In modern times, Sugar Puff, who had been listed in the
Guinness Book of World Records as the world's oldest living pony, died in 2007 at age 56.
[8]
Regardless of a horse or pony's actual birth date, for most competition purposes a year is added to its age each January 1 of each year in the Northern Hemisphere
[6][9] and each August 1 in the Southern Hemisphere.
[10] The exception is in
endurance riding, where the minimum age to compete is based on the animal's actual calendar age.
[11]
The following terminology is used to describe horses of various ages:
- Colt: a male horse under the age of four.[12] A common terminology error is to call any young horse a "colt", when the term actually only refers to young male horses.[13]
- Filly: a female horse under the age of four.[14]
- Foal: a horse of either sex less than one year old. A nursing foal is sometimes called a suckling and a foal that has been weaned is called a weanling.[14] Most domesticated foals are weaned at five to seven months of age, although foals can be weaned at four months with no adverse physical effects.[15]
- Gelding: a castrated male horse of any age.[14]
- Mare: a female horse four years old and older.[16]
- Stallion: a non-castrated male horse four years old and older.[17] The term "horse" is sometimes used colloquially to refer specifically to a stallion.[18]
- Yearling: a horse of either sex that is between one and two years old.[19]
In
horse racing, these definitions may differ: For example, in the British Isles,
Thoroughbred horse racing defines colts and fillies as less than five years old.
[20] However, Australian Thoroughbred racing defines colts and fillies as less than four years old.
[21]
Size and measurement
The height of horses is measured at the highest point of the
withers, where the neck meets the
back.
[22] This point is used because it is a stable point of the anatomy, unlike the head or neck, which move up and down in relation to the body of the horse.
The English-speaking world measures the height of horses in
hands and inches: one hand is equal to 4 inches (101.6 mm). The height is expressed as the number of full hands, followed by a
point, then the number of additional inches, and ending with the abbreviation "h" or "hh" (for "hands high"). Thus, a horse described as "15.2 h" is 15 hands plus 2 inches, for a total of 62 inches (157.5 cm) in height.
[23]
Size varies greatly among horse breeds, as with this full-sized horse and a miniature horse.
The size of horses varies by breed, but also is influenced by
nutrition. Light riding horses usually range in height from 14 to 16 hands (56 to 64 inches, 142 to 163 cm) and can weigh from 380 to 550 kilograms (840 to 1,200 lb).
[24] Larger riding horses usually start at about 15.2 hands (62 inches, 157 cm) and often are as tall as 17 hands (68 inches, 173 cm), weighing from 500 to 600 kilograms (1,100 to 1,300 lb).
[25] Heavy or
draft horsesare usually at least 16 hands (64 inches, 163 cm) high and can be as tall as 18 hands (72 inches, 183 cm) high. They can weigh from about 700 to 1,000 kilograms (1,500 to 2,200 lb).
[26]
The largest horse in recorded history was probably a
Shire horse named
Mammoth, who was born in 1848. He stood
21.2 1⁄2 hands (86.5 inches, 220 cm) high and his peak weight was estimated at 1,500 kilograms (3,300 lb).
[27] The current record holder for the world's smallest horse is
Thumbelina, a fully mature
miniature horse affected by
dwarfism. She is 17 in (43 cm) tall and weighs 57 lb (26 kg).
[28]
Ponies
Ponies are
taxonomically the same animals as horses. The distinction between a horse and pony is commonly drawn on the basis of height, especially for competition purposes. However, height alone is not dispositive; the difference between horses and ponies may also include aspects of
phenotype, including conformation and temperament.
The traditional standard for height of a horse or a
pony at maturity is 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm). An animal 14.2 h or over is usually considered to be a horse and one less than 14.2 h a pony,
[29] but there are many exceptions to the traditional standard. In Australia, ponies are considered to be those under 14 hands (56 inches, 142 cm),
[30] For competition in the
Western division of the
United States Equestrian Federation, the cutoff is 14.1 hands (57 inches, 145 cm)
[31] The
International Federation for Equestrian Sports, the world governing body for horse sport, uses
metric measurements and defines a pony as being any horse measuring less than 148 centimetres (58.27 in) at the withers without shoes, which is just over 14.2 h, and 149 centimetres (58.66 in), or just over 14.2½ h, with shoes.
[32]
Height is not the sole criterion for distinguishing horses from ponies.
Breed registries for horses that typically produce individuals both under and over 14.2 h consider all animals of that breed to be horses regardless of their height.
[33]Conversely, some pony breeds may have features in common with horses, and individual animals may occasionally mature at over 14.2 h, but are still considered to be ponies.
[34]
Ponies often exhibit thicker manes, tails, and overall coat. They also have proportionally shorter legs, wider barrels, heavier bone, shorter and thicker necks, and short heads with broad foreheads. They may have calmer temperaments than horses and also a high level of equine intelligence that may or may not be used to cooperate with human handlers.
[29] Small size, by itself, is not an exclusive determinant. For example, the
Shetland pony which averages 10 hands (40 inches, 102 cm), is considered a pony.
[35] Conversely, breeds such as the
Falabella and other
miniature horses, which can be no taller than 30 inches (76 cm), are classified by their
registries as very small horses, not ponies.
[36]
Genetics
Colors and markings
Bay (left) and
chestnut (sometimes called "sorrel") are two of the most common coat colors, seen in almost all breeds.
Horses exhibit a diverse array of
coat colors and distinctive
markings, described by a specialized vocabulary. Often, a horse is classified first by its coat color, before breed or sex.
[41] Horses of the same color may be distinguished from one another by white
markings,
[42] which, along with various spotting patterns, are inherited separately from coat color.
[43]
Many
genes that create horse coat colors and patterns have been identified. Current genetic tests can identify at least 13 different
alleles influencing coat color,
[44] and research continues to discover new genes linked to specific traits. The basic coat colors of
chestnut and
black are determined by the
gene controlled by the
Melanocortin 1 receptor,
[45] also known as the "extension gene" or "red factor,"
[44] as its recessive form is "red" (chestnut) and its dominant form is black.
[46] Additional
genes control suppression of black color to
point colorationthat results in a
bay, spotting patterns such as
pinto or
leopard,
dilution genes such as
palomino or
dun, as well as
graying, and all the other factors that create the many possible coat colors found in horses.
[44]
Horses which have a white coat color are often mislabeled; a horse that looks "white" is usually a middle-aged or older
gray. Grays are born a darker shade, get lighter as they age, but usually keep black skin underneath their white hair coat (with the exception of pink skin under white
markings). The only horses properly called
white are born with a predominantly white hair coat and pink skin, a fairly rare occurrence.
[46] Different and unrelated
genetic factors can produce white coat colors in horses, including several different alleles of
dominant white and the
sabino-1 gene.
[47] However, there are no "
albino" horses, defined as having both pink skin and red eyes.
[48]
Reproduction and development
Main article:
Horse breeding
Gestation lasts approximately 340 days, with an average range 320–370 days,
[49] and usually results in one
foal; twins are rare.
[50] Horses are a
precocial species, and foals are capable of standing and running within a short time following birth.
[51]Foals are usually born in the spring. The
estrous cycle of a mare occurs roughly every 19–22 days and occurs from early spring into autumn. Most mares enter an
anestrus period during the winter and thus do not cycle in this period.
[52] Foals are generally
weaned from their mothers between four and six months of age.
[53]
Horses, particularly colts, sometimes are physically capable of reproduction at about 18 months, but domesticated horses are rarely allowed to breed before the age of three, especially females.
[54] Horses four years old are considered mature, although the skeleton normally continues to develop until the age of six; maturation also depends on the horse's size, breed, sex, and quality of care. Larger horses have larger bones; therefore, not only do the bones take longer to form
bone tissue, but the
epiphyseal plates are larger and take longer to convert from
cartilage to bone. These plates convert after the other parts of the bones, and are crucial to development.
[55]
Depending on maturity, breed, and work expected, horses are usually put under saddle and
trained to be ridden between the ages of two and four.
[56] Although
Thoroughbred race horses are put on the track as young as the age of two in some countries,
[57] horses specifically bred for sports such as
dressage are generally not put under saddle until they are three or four years old, because their bones and muscles are not solidly developed.
[58] For
endurance riding competition, horses are not deemed mature enough to compete until they are a full 60 calendar months (five years) old.
[11]
Anatomy
Skeletal system
The skeletal system of a modern horse
The horse skeleton averages 205 bones.
[59] A significant difference between the horse skeleton and that of a human is the lack of a
collarbone—the horse's
forelimbs are attached to the
spinal column by a powerful set of muscles, tendons, and ligaments that attach the
shoulder blade to the torso. The horse's legs and hooves are also unique structures. Their leg bones are proportioned differently from those of a human. For example, the body part that is called a horse's "knee" is actually made up of the
carpal bones that correspond to the human
wrist. Similarly, the
hock contains bones equivalent to those in the human
ankle and
heel. The lower leg bones of a horse correspond to the bones of the human hand or foot, and the
fetlock (incorrectly called the "ankle") is actually the proximal
sesamoid bones between the
cannon bones (a single equivalent to the human
metacarpal or
metatarsal bones) and the
proximal phalanges, located where one finds the "knuckles" of a human. A horse also has no muscles in its legs below the knees and hocks, only skin, hair, bone,
tendons,
ligaments,
cartilage, and the assorted specialized tissues that make up the
hoof.
[60]
Hooves
The critical importance of the feet and legs is summed up by the traditional adage, "no foot, no horse".
[61] The
horse hoofbegins with the
distal phalanges, the equivalent of the human fingertip or tip of the toe, surrounded by
cartilage and other specialized, blood-rich soft tissues such as the
laminae. The exterior hoof wall and horn of the sole is made of essentially the same material as a human
fingernail.
[62] The end result is that a horse, weighing on average 500 kilograms (1,100 lb),
[63]travels on the same bones as would a human on tiptoe.
[64] For the protection of the hoof under certain conditions, some horses have
horseshoes placed on their feet by a professional
farrier. The hoof continually grows, and in most domesticated horses needs to be trimmed (and horseshoes reset, if used) every five to eight weeks,
[65] though the hooves of horses in the wild wear down and regrow at a rate suitable for their terrain.
Teeth
Main article:
Horse teeth
Horses are adapted to
grazing. In an adult horse, there are 12
incisors at the front of the mouth, adapted to biting off the grass or other vegetation. There are 24 teeth adapted for chewing, the
premolars and
molars, at the back of the mouth. Stallions and geldings have four additional teeth just behind the incisors, a type of
canine teeth called "tushes". Some horses, both male and female, will also develop one to four very small
vestigial teeth in front of the molars, known as "wolf" teeth, which are generally removed because they can interfere with the
bit. There is an empty interdental space between the incisors and the molars where the bit rests directly on the gums, or "bars" of the horse's mouth when the horse is
bridled.
[66]
An estimate of a horse's age can be made from looking at its teeth. The teeth continue to erupt throughout life and are worn down by grazing. Therefore, the incisors show changes as the horse ages; they develop a distinct wear pattern, changes in tooth shape, and changes in the angle at which the chewing surfaces meet. This allows a very rough estimate of a horse's age, although diet and veterinary care can also affect the rate of tooth wear.
[6]
Digestion
Horses are
herbivores with a digestive system adapted to a
forage diet of grasses and other plant material, consumed steadily throughout the day. Therefore, compared to humans, they have a relatively small stomach but very long intestines to facilitate a steady flow of nutrients. A 450-kilogram (990 lb) horse will eat 7 to 11 kilograms (15 to 24 lb) of food per day and, under normal use, drink 38 litres (8.4 imp gal; 10 US gal) to 45 litres (9.9 imp gal; 12 US gal) of
water. Horses are not
ruminants, so they have only one stomach, like humans, but unlike humans, they can digest
cellulose, a major component of grass. Cellulose digestion occurs in the
cecum, or "water gut", which food goes through before reaching the
large intestine. Horses cannot
vomit, so digestion problems can quickly cause
colic, a leading cause of death.
[67]
Senses
The horses' senses are based on their status as
prey animals, where they must be aware of their surroundings at all times.
[68] They have the largest eyes of any land mammal,
[69] and are lateral-eyed, meaning that their eyes are positioned on the sides of their heads.
[70] This means that horses have a range of vision of more than 350°, with approximately 65° of this being
binocular vision and the remaining 285°
monocular vision.
[69] Horses have excellent day and
night vision, but they have two-color, or
dichromatic vision; their
color vision is somewhat like
red-green color blindness in humans, where certain colors, especially red and related colors, appear as a shade of green.
[71]
Their
sense of smell, while much better than that of humans, is not quite as good as that of a dog. It is believed to play a key role in the social interactions of horses as well as detecting other key scents in the environment. Horses have two olfactory centers. The first system is in the nostrils and nasal cavity, which analyze a wide range of odors. The second, located under the nasal cavity, are the
Vomeronasal organs, also called Jacobson's organs. These have a separate nerve pathway to the brain and appear to primarily analyze
phermones.
[72]
A horse's hearing is good,
[68] and the
pinna of each ear can rotate up to 180°, giving the potential for 360° hearing without having to move the head.
[73] Noise impacts the behavior of horses and certain kinds of noise may contribute to stress: A 2013 study in the UK indicated that stabled horses were calmest in a quiet setting, or if listening to country or classical music, but displayed signs of nervousness when listening to jazz or rock music. This study also recommended keeping music under a volume of 21
decibels.
[74] An Australian study found that stabled racehorses listening to talk radio had a higher rate of gastric ulcers than horses listening to music, and racehorses stabled where a radio was played had a higher overall rate of ulceration than horses stabled where there was no radio playing.
[75]
Horses have a great sense of balance, due partly to their ability to feel their footing and partly to highly developed
proprioception—the unconscious sense of where the body and limbs are at all times.
[76] A horse's
sense of touch is well developed. The most sensitive areas are around the eyes, ears, and nose.
[77] Horses are able to sense contact as subtle as an insect landing anywhere on the body.
[78]
Horses have an advanced sense of taste, which allows them to sort through
fodder and choose what they would most like to eat,
[79] and their
prehensile lips can easily sort even small grains. Horses generally will not eat poisonous plants, however, there are exceptions; horses will occasionally eat toxic amounts of poisonous plants even when there is adequate healthy food.
[80]
Movement